The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), is the UN’s main body to advance action to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and adapt to the consequences of a warming climate. When adopted in 1992, the Convention recognised that climate change could have significant adverse effects on societies and identified least developed countries, small island states and regions affected by drought and floods as particularly vulnerable. These additions embedded human security matters into international climate action before there was a policy field seeking to systematically address the relationship between climate change, insecurity and conflict.
Since then, the understanding of the interactions between climate change, peace and security has evolved. UNFCCC COPs were slow to reflect this development. Early developments centred on vulnerability, adaptation and loss and damage, while more recent COP presidencies have brought the connections between climate and peacebuilding to the spotlight through presidency initiatives, declarations and dedicating a “Peace Day” to discussions on the nexus. The text below showcases how the UNFCCC process reflected this growing understanding of climate security by tracing a timeline of development of the UNFCCC’s engagement with climate, peace and security, from the Convention’s adoption in 1992 to the most recent COPs.
The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) does not explicitly mention climate security, human security or the relationship between climate change and conflict. Nevertheless, it addresses several issues that would later become key to many pathways in the climate security nexus. It recognises that climate change can have significant adverse effects on socio-economic systems, and it calls for climate stabilisation at a level that would ensure that food production is not threatened. It also highlights the vulnerability of developing countries and least developed countries, though not specifically fragile or conflict affected states. Small island states, low lying coastal areas and regions affected by drought, desertification and floods are described as “particularly vulnerable”. The text points to a recognition of the effects of climate change on different aspects of human security, but it does not establish how these threats to human security can contribute to instability, competition over scarce resources, or conflict.
The Kyoto protocol was an important step in operationalizing the UNFCCC. This international treaty required developed countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions, but specifically excluded one aspect: the influence that conflicts have on emissions. On the final document, military greenhouse gas emissions were exempted from mandatory reporting and emissions reduction targets. Parties advocating for the exclusion of military emissions cited national security concerns.
COP13 marks the first time that loss and damage enters negotiated text. In the Bali Action Plan, Parties agreed on enhancing adaptation efforts including disaster risk reduction and loss and damage strategies for both developing countries and countries most affected by the effects of climate change.
The Paris Agreement is adopted at COP21. It establishes the Global Goal on Adaptation, encouraging nations to conduct assessments of climate hazards, climate change impacts, and exposures to risks and vulnerabilities by 2030, using the outcomes to inform their National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) and policy strategies. It also encourages the establishment of multi-hazard early warning systems and climate information services for risk reduction— provisions with clear relevance for fragile and conflict-affected contexts. While the agreement does not explicitly reference peace and security, it acknowledges for the first time that climate change can drive human mobility, recognising the need to protect people displaced by climate impacts.
On the sidelines of COP22 in Marrakesh, Morocco and Senegal presented the Sustainability, Stability and Security (3S) Initiative — an inter-governmental collaboration of African nations that links environmental degradation to the root causes of conflict and instability on the continent. Built on three mutually reinforcing pillars of sustainability, stability and security, the initiative aims to address the underlying drivers of fragility in Africa through actions like sustainable land management and job creation.
COP26 saw an evolution in the climate security conversation, with a growing number of dedicated side events signaling the increasing awareness on climate security among civil society and affected countries. Organized by adelphi in collaboration with the German Federal Foreign Office and the Munich Security Conference, the high-level event Climate, Peace and Stability: Weathering Risk Through COP and Beyond brought together policymakers, practitioners and researchers to explore how climate action can be designed to support peace and stability in fragile and conflict-affected contexts.
COP27 marks the first time a COP Presidency explicitly connected climate action with peacebuilding. The Egyptian Presidency launched the Climate Responses for Sustaining Peace (CRSP) initiative on 12 November 2022, aimed at ensuring that climate responses support sustainable peace and development whilst respecting national ownership and context-specific needs. COP27 also sees the creation of the Loss and Damage Fund, which provides financial assistance to vulnerable countries dealing with climate impacts that cannot be avoided through mitigation or adaptation. The Fund does not specifically target conflict-affected or fragile states but is of relevance as many countries most exposed to irreversible climate losses are also experiencing conflict and fragility.
The Dubai presidency had peace as one of its focus themes. COP28 introduced for the first time a thematic day centering "Relief, Recovery and Peace", drawing attention to and encouraging discussions on climate security. On this day the Declaration on Climate, Relief, Recovery and Peace was launched, calling for bolder collective efforts to build climate resilience in countries and communities affected by fragility and conflict and those facing severe humanitarian needs. Initially endorsed by over 70 countries and organisations such as adelphi, CGIAR, the Green Climate Fund and several UN agencies, the document gave a basis for discussions on how to operationalize the declaration. The COP28 presidency also organised a series of high-level panels on topics such as cooperation, renewable energy and finance for fragile and conflict affected countries.
Related reading:
Operationalising the Climate, Relief, Recovery and Peace Declaration
Climate finance for fragile and conflict-affected contexts continues to fall short. Although extreme weather events affect three times as many people in fragile and conflict-affected states annually compared to other countries, they receive up to 80 times less climate finance. This practical note provides guidance for actors to deliver peace-positive climate action and climate-informed peacebuilding in fragile and conflict-affected contexts.
COP29 continued the mainstreaming of climate security. The Azerbaijani presidency mirrored that of the UAE by also dedicating a day to Peace, Relief and Recovery, leading to over 80 side events on the topic. In collaboration with Egypt, Italy, Germany, Uganda, the United Arab Emirates, and the United Kingdom, the COP29 presidency launched the Baku Call on Climate Action for Peace, Relief, and Recovery, which called for risk-informed, conflict-sensitive and peace-positive climate change adaptation, as well as increased climate finance for countries and communities affected by conflict.
The summit saw the launch of two new initiatives: the Baku Climate and Peace Action Hub, a platform created to foster synergies between climate and peace initiatives at national, regional and cross-regional levels; and the Improved and Equitable Access to Climate Finance Network, created by a coalition of conflict-affected countries to advocate for access to climate finance.
The Azerbaijani presidency also introduced the COP Truce Initiative, which proposed halting military operations one week before the opening and closing ceremonies of the conference, with the goal of “reducing environmental impact and promoting unity in the face of climate change”. In total, 132 countries joined the appeal.
In the run-up to COP30, Ana Toni, the summit's chief executive, recognized the threat that the climate crisis poses to peace in public remarks, by stating that “Climate change is an accelerator of inequalities and poverty, and we know that the consequences of inequality and poverty can turn into wars in the future”. Still, climate security had a marginal presence at COP30 in comparison to previous years. The Brazilian presidency did not make Peace, Relief and Recovery an agenda item, nor did it dedicate a day to the topic, as its predecessors had done. This was despite efforts by civil society on topics such as including conflict-sensitive National Adaptation Plans (NAPs) on the agenda, and conflict-affected countries continuing to advocate for improved access to climate finance.
Related reading:
Climate, environment and human security in Brazil: Response landscape and leadership opportunities
Brazil is navigating a complex landscape shaped by the ongoing impacts of climate change and environmental degradation, with significant long-term implications for human security and sustainable development. As guardian of globally vital ecosystems, Brazil’s environmental challenges are central to regional and international debates—yet the ways in which these challenges intersect with social vulnerabilities often go overlooked. This report addresses that gap, examining how climate and environmental pressures intensify human insecurity through complex, reinforcing pathways.
More from our short history series:
Climate security at the UN Security Council
The UNSC has convened multiple high-level open debates on climate change, peace and security, and the pressure on the Council to take more decisive and systematic action continues to grow. The history below traces how this engagement has evolved — from the Council's first discussion in 2007 to the present day.
